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The baud rate ofa data communications system is the number of symbols per secondtransferred. A symbol may have more than two states, so it may representmore than one binary bit (a binary bit always represents exactly twostates). Therefore the baud rate may not equal the bit rate, especiallyin the case of recent modems, which can have (for example) up to ninebits per symbol.For example, a Bell 212A modemuses Phase Shift Keying (PSK) modulation, and each symbolhas one of four phase shifts (of 0(deg), 90(deg), 180(deg), or270(deg)). Since it requires two bits to represent four states (00, 01,10, and 11), the modem transmits 1,200 bits/s of information, using asymbol rate of 600 baud.Usually the baud rate of amodem will not equal the bit rate and is of no interestto the end user-only the data rate, in bits per second, is.Therefore in referring to thedata rate of a modem, use bits/s (or kbits/s, etc.), notbaud rate.Named after J. Emile Baudot(1845-1903), who was a French telegraph operator, whoworked out a five-level code (five bits per character) for telegraphs?It was standardized as International Telegraph Alphabet Number 2, andis commonly called Baudot (and is a predecessor to ASCII).
Since 2^5 isonly 32 and the uppercase letters, numbers, and a few punctuationcharacters add to more than that, Baudot uses Shift In and Shift Outcharacters (analogous to how the Caps Lock key on a PCkeyboard reduces the number of keys needed by enabling each letter keyto represent two characters).Baud means 'state changes ofthe line per second'.The baud unit isnamed after Jean Maurice Emile Baudot, who was an officer in the FrenchTelegraph Service. He is credited with devising the firstuniform-length 5-bit code for characters of the alphabet in the late19th century.
What baud really refers to is modulation rate or thenumber of times per second that a line changes state. This is notalways the same as bits per second (BPS). If you connect two serialdevices together using direct cables then baud and BPS are in fact thesame. Thus, if you are running at 19200 BPS, then the line is alsochanging states 19200 times per second. But when considering modems,this isn't the case.Because modems transfer signalsover a telephone line, the baud rate is actually limitedto a maximum of 2400 baud.
This is a physical restriction of the linesprovided by the phone company. The increased data throughput achievedwith 9600 or higher baud modems is accomplished by using sophisticatedphase modulation, and data compression techniques. Once the startbit has been sent, the transmitter sends the actual databits. There may either be 5, 6, 7, or 8 data bits,depending on the number you have selected. Both receiverand the transmitter must agree on the number of data bits, as well asthe baud rate. Almost all devices transmit data using either 7 or 8 databits.When notice that when only 7data bits are employed, you cannot send ASCII valuesgreater than 127. Likewise, using 5 bits limits the highest possiblevalue to 31.
After the data has been transmitted, a stop bit is sent. Astop bit has a value of 1 - or a mark state - and it can be detectedcorrectly even if the previous data bit also had a value of 1. This isaccomplished by the stop bit's duration. Stop bits can be 1, 1.5, or 2bit periods in length. Besides thesynchronization provided by the use of start and stop bits, anadditional bit called a parity bit may optionally is transmitted alongwith the data.
A parity bit affords a small amount of error checking, tohelp detect data corruption that might occur during transmission. Youcan choose even parity, odd parity, mark parity, space parity or none atall. When even or odd parity is being used, the number of marks(logical 1 bits) in each data byte are counted, and a single bit istransmitted following the data bits to indicate whether the number of 1bits just sent is even or odd.For example, when even parityis chosen, the parity bit is transmitted with a value of0 if the number of preceding marks is an even number. For the binaryvalue of 0110 0011 the parity bit would be 0. If even parity were ineffect and the binary number 1101 0110 were sent, then the parity bitwould be 1. Odd parity is just the opposite, and the parity bit is 0when the number of mark bits in the preceding word is an odd number.Parity error checking is very rudimentary. While it will tell you ifthere is a single bit error in the character, it doesn't show which bitwas received in error.
Also, if even numbers of bits were in error thenthe parity bit would not reflect any error at all.Mark parity means that theparity bit is always set to the mark signal condition andlikewise space parity always sends the parity bit in the space signalcondition. Since these two parity options serve no useful purposewhatsoever, they are almost never used.The start bitindicates the beginning of a new data word.
It is used to synchronizetransmitter and receiver and is always a logical 0 (so the line goesHIGH).Data is transmitted LSB to MSB,which means that the least significant bit (LSB, Bit 0)is transmitted first with 4 to 7 bits of data following, resulting in5 to 8 bits of data. A logical 0 is transmitted by the HIGH state ofthe line, a logical 1 by LOW.A parity bit canbe added to the data bits to allow error detection. There are two (well,actually five) kinds of parity: odd and even (plus none, mark andspace). Odd parity means that the number of LOW steps in the data word(including parity bit) is always odd, so the parity bit is setaccordingly (I don't have to explain even parity, must I?). It is alsopossible to set the parity bit to a fixed state or to omit it.
The stop bit does not indicate theend of the word (as it could be derived from its name); it ratherseparates two consecutive words by putting the line into the LOW statefor a minimum time (that means the stop bit is a logical 1). Most SignificantThe upper bytes or digits,For example, the MS digit of the number 832 are 8.You can determine thetransfer rate in bytes per second depending on theserial port speed and the coding system.Here is theexample:8n1: 1 start bit + 8 data bits + 1stop bit per byte = 10 bits per byte.At 2400 bps, this is 240bytes/characters per second.
2400 bps are normallytransmitted using QAM where 4 bits are clustered, and hence encoded to600 baud.7e1: 1 start bit, 7 data bits,1 parity bit, 1 stop bit = 10 bits per byte.At 1200 bps, this is 120bytes/characters per second. 1200 bps are encoded usingDPSK ('Differential Phase Shift Keying', two bits are clustered), andthis results again in 600 baud.'
Unfortunately, in much of today's literature, the terms 'baud' and 'bits per second' are used synonymously. This is correct in cases where pure two-state signaling is used, but is incorrect in general. For this reason, the term 'baud' is gradually being replaced by 'bits per second,' since the latter is independent of the coding method and truly represents the information rate.When you use a modem to send information from one to another over the phone lines, the information moves at a certain speed. This speed is measured in bits per second, a bit being one electronic unit of information. This bits-per-second rate is also commonly called the baud rate (pronounced 'bod'). It's a measure of how fast your modem can send and receive information. Modems most typically send at 1200, 2400, or 9600 baud.Now, I do have to warn you that even though the masses (that's us) often use the term 'baud' to mean the same thing as 'bits per second,' this is technically incorrect, and someday someone will surely scold you.
One baud is actually one 'modulation change' or one 'signal event' per second on a communications channel. It's only at 300 baud that one signal event equals one bit per second. A modem operating at 1200bits per second needs only one signal event to send 2 bits, so if you want to be persnickety you should call it a 600 baud modem. See bps for a discussion of common communications speeds and how they translate into speed ratings you can relate to.The term 'baud' is named after the inventor of the Baudot telegraph code, J.M.E.
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Howard Berg as a young manBorn1934ResidenceCambridge, MassachusettsAlma materCalifornia Institute of Technology, Harvard UniversityScientific careerInstitutions,(1964)Howard Curtis Berg (born 1934) is the Herchel Smith Professor of Physics and Professor of Molecular and Cellular Biology at, where he teaches and studies the of the bacterium (E. Coli).Berg has been a member of the Harvard University Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology since 1986 and of the Harvard University Department of Physics since 1997. He is also a member of the at Harvard University. Contents.Early life and education Berg studied as an undergraduate at the and in 1964 earned a in from Harvard, with a on the directed by.Career While at Harvard, Berg was a junior fellow in the. He later taught at the and.Awards With, Berg received the in Biological Physics from the in 1984 for work on the physical limits of bacterial chemoreception. He was elected a Fellow of the in 1985. He is author of the influential book Random Walks in Biology (Princeton Univ.
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